2.1 Autoimmune Disorders
Autoimmune diseases are caused when the body's immune system, which is meant to defend the body against bacteria, viruses, and any other foreign product, malfunctions and produces antibodies against healthy tissue, cells and organs. Antibodies, T cells and macrophages provide beneficial protection, but can also produce harmful or deadly immunological responses.
The principle mechanisms by which auto-antibodies can produce an autoimmune disease are complement-dependent lytic destruction of the target cell, opsonization, formation of immune complexes, blockade of receptor sites for physiological ligands, and stimulation of cell surface receptors. The auto-antibody can bind to cell surface receptors and either inhibit or stimulate the specialized function of the cell (Paul, W. E. Ed., 1989, Fundamental Immunology, Raven Press, New York, Chapter 31, p. 839).
Autoimmune diseases can be organ specific or systemic and are provoked by different pathogenic mechanisms. Organ specific autoimmunization is characterized by tolerance and suppression within the T cell compartment, aberrant expression of major-histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens, antigenic mimicry and allelic variations in MHC genes. Systemic autoimmune diseases involve polyclonal B cell activation and abnormalities of immunoregulatory T cells, T cell receptors and MHC genes. Examples of organ specific autoimmune diseases are diabetes, Hashimoto's disease, autoimmune adrenal insufficiency, pure red cell anemia, multiple sclerosis and rheumatic carditis. Representative systemic autoimmune diseases are systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic inflammation, Sjogren's syndrome polymyositis, dermatomyositis and scleroderma.
Current treatment of autoimmune diseases involves administering immunosuppressive agents such as cortisone, aspirin derivatives, hydroxychloroquine, methotrexate, azathioprine and cyclophsophamide or combinations thereof. The dilemma faced when administering immunosuppressive agents, however, is the more effectively the autoimmune disease is treated, the more defenseless the patient is left to attack from infections. Thus, there is a need for an effective treatment for autoimmune diseases that does not compromise the patient's immune system.
2.2 Inflammatory Disorders
Inflammation plays a fundamental role in host defenses and the progression of immune-mediated diseases. The inflammatory response is initiated by tissue injury (e.g., trauma, ischemia, and foreign particles) and infection by a complex cascade of events, including chemical mediators (e.g., cytokines and postaglandins) and inflammatory cells (e.g., leukocytes). The inflammatory response is characterized by increased blood flow, increased capillary permeability, and influx of phagocytic cells. These events result in swelling, redness, warmth, and pus formation at the site of injury or infection.
A delicate well-balanced interplay between the humoral and cellular immune elements in the inflammatory response enables the elimination of harmful agents and the initiation of the repair of damaged tissue. When this delicately balanced interplay is disrupted, the inflammatory response may result in considerable damage to normal tissue and may be more harmful than the original injury or infection that triggered the initial inflammatory reaction. In these cases of uncontrolled inflammatory responses, clinical intervention is needed to prevent tissue damage and organ dysfunction. Diseases and disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, Crohn's disease, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease, asthma, and allergies are characterized by inflammation.
Current therapies for inflammatory disorders involve symptomatic medications and immunosuppressive agents to control symptoms. For example, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, ibuprofen, fenoprofen, naproxen, tolmetin, sulindac, meclofenamate sodium, piroxicam, flurbiprofen, diclofenac, oxaprozin, nabumetone, etodolac, and ketoprofen that have analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects are used to treat inflammatory disorders. However, NSAIDs are believed not to be capable of altering progression of the disease. (Tierney et al. (eds.), Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment, 37 ed., Appleton & Lange (1998), p 793). Moreover, NSAIDs frequently cause gastrointestinal side effects, affect the lower intestinal tract causing perforation or aggravating inflammatory bowel disease, produce renal toxicity and prolong bleeding time. Corticosteroids are another class of drugs that are commonly used to control inflammatory symptoms. Corticosteroids, like NSAIDs, do not alter the natural progression of the disease, and thus, clinical manifestations of active disease commonly reappear when the drug is discontinued. The serious problem of negative reactions resulting from prolonged corticosteroid therapy (e.g., osteoporosis, increased risk of infection, increased appetite, hypertension, edema, peptic ulcers, and psychoses) greatly limits its long-term use.
Low doses of immunosuppressive agents such as cytotoxic agents are also commonly used to in treatment of inflammatory disorders. For example, methotrexate, an antagonist of folic acid, is often used in treatment of psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases. Methotrexate, like other cytotoxic agents, frequently causes stomatitis, erythema, slopecia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and damage to major organs such kidney and liver. The long-term usage of immunosuppressive agents usually leaves the patient defenseless to infections.
New therapies for inflammatory disorders are constantly being sought. In particular, any new treatment that reduces the dosage and/or frequency of administration of agents currently being used, or is capable of making a currently used treatment more effective is constantly being sought.
2.2.1 Asthma
About 12 million people in the U.S. have asthma and it is the leading cause of hospitalization for children. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy (17th ed., 1999).
Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the lung that is characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness (“AHR”), bronchoconstriction (i.e., wheezing), eosinophilic inflammation, mucus hypersecretion, subepithelial fibrosis, and elevated IgE levels. Asthmatic attacks can be triggered by environmental factors (e.g. acarids, insects, animals (e.g., cats, dogs, rabbits, mice, rats, hamsters, guinea pigs, mice, rats, and birds), fungi, air pollutants (e.g., tobacco smoke), irritant gases, fumes, vapors, aerosols, or chemicals, or pollen), exercise, or cold air. The cause(s) of asthma is unknown. However, it has been speculated that family history of asthma (London et al., 2001, Epidemiology 12(5):577–83), early exposure to allergens, such as dust mites, tobacco smoke, and cockroaches (Melen et al., 2001, 56(7):646–52), and respiratory infections (Wenzel et al., 2002, Am J Med, 112(8):672–33 and Lin et al., 2001, J Microbiol Immuno Infect, 34(4):259–64) may increase the risk of developing asthma.
Asthma may be identified by recurrent wheezing and intermittent air flow limitation. An asthmatic tendency may be quantified by the measurement of bronchial hyper-responsiveness in which an individual's dose-response curve to a broncho-constrictor such as histamine or methacholine is constricted. The curve is commonly summarized by the dose which results in a 20% fall in air flow (PD20) or the slope of the curve between the initial air flow measurement and the last dose given (slope).
Current therapies are mainly aimed at managing asthma and include the administration of β-adrenergic drugs (e.g. epinephrine and isoproterenol), theophylline, anticholinergic drugs (e.g., atropine and ipratorpium bromide), corticosteroids, and leukotriene inhibitors. These therapies are associated with side effects such as drug interactions, dry mouth, blurred vision, growth suppression in children, and osteoporosis in menopausal women. Cromolyn and nedocromil are administered prophylatically to inhibit mediator release from inflammatory cells, reduce airway hyperresponsiveness, and block responses to allergens. However, there are no current therapies available that prevent the development of asthma in subjects at increased risk of developing asthma. Thus, new therapies with fewer side effects and better prophylactic and/or therapeutic efficacy are needed for asthma.
2.2.2 Allergies
A common cause of inflammation are allergies. Immune-mediated allergic (hypersensitivity) reactions are classified into four types (I–IV) according to the underlying mechanisms leading to the manifestation of the allergic symptoms. Type I allergic reactions are immediate hypersensitivity reactions characterized by IgE-mediated release of vasoactive substances such as histamine from mast cells and basophils. Over hours, the mast cells and basophils release proinflammatory cytokines producing vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, glandular hypersecretion, smooth muscle spasm, and tissue infiltration with eosinophils and other inflammatory cells.
Type II allergic reactions are cytotoxic hypersensitivity reactions and involve IgG or IgM antibodies bound to cell surface antigens with subsequent complement fixation. Certain cytotoxic cells, such as killer T cells or macrophages, are activated, bind to cells coated with IgG and destroy the target cells. Type II reactions may result in cytolysis or tissue damage.
Type III reactions are immune-complex reactions resulting from deposits of circulating antigen-antibody immune complexes in blood vessels or tissues. Acute inflammation results from the immune-complex initiating a sequence of events that results in polymorphonuclear cell migration and release of lysosomal proteolytic enzymes and permeability factors in tissues.
Type IV reactions are delayed hypersensitivity reactions caused by sensitized T lymphocytes after contact with a specific antigen. Activated sensitized T lymphocytes cause immunologic injury by direct toxic effect or through release of lymphokines and other soluble substances. The activated T lymphocytes may also release cytokines that affect the activity of macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphoid killer cells.
Allergic reactions can be immediate, late-phase, or chronic. Continuous or chronic exposure to an allergen can result in chronic allergic inflammation. Tissues of sites of chronic inflammation contain eosinophils and T cells that release mediators that can cause tissue damage, increased inflammation, and increased sensitivity.
Currently, allergic reactions are treated with drugs such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, vasodilators, bronchodilators, leukotriene inhibitors, and immunomodulators which attempt to alleviate the symptoms associated with the allergic reaction. Present therapies for allergic reactions produce negative side effects or have limited use. For example, high doses of antihistamines and corticosteroids have deleterious side effects (e.g., central nervous system disturbance, constipation, etc.). Vasodilators pose increased risks to patients with certain conditions such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, hyperthyroidism and may cause death from cerebrovascular hemorrhage or cardiac arrhythmia. Thus, other methods for treating allergic reactions are needed.
2.3 Respiratory Infections
Respiratory infections are common infections of the upper respiratory tract (e.g., nose, ears, sinuses, and throat) and lower respiratory tract (e.g., trachea, bronchial tubes, and lungs). Symptoms of upper respiratory infection include runny or stuffy nose, irritability, restlessness, poor appetite, decreased activity level, coughing, and fever. Viral upper respiratory infections cause and/or are associated with sore throats, colds, croup, and the flu. Examples of viruses that cause upper respiratory tract infections include rhinoviruses and influenza viruses A and B. Common upper respiratory bacterial infections cause and/or are associated with, for example, whooping cough and strep throat. An example of a bacteria that causes an upper respiratory tract infection is Streptococcus. 
Clinical manifestations of a lower respiratory infection include shallow coughing that produces sputum in the lungs, fever, and difficulty breathing. Examples of lower respiratory viral infections are parainfluenza virus infections (“PIV”), respiratory syncytial virus (“RSV”) infections, and bronchiolitis (caused by RSV, PIV, influenza virus, mycoplasma, and some adenoviruses). Examples of bacteria that cause lower respiratory tract infections include Streptococcus pneumoniae that causes pneumonococcal pneumonia and Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes tuberculosis. Respiratory infections caused by fungi include systemic candidiasis, blastomycosis crytococcosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Respiratory infections may be primary or secondary infections.
Current therapies for respiratory infections involve the administration of anti-viral agents, anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal agents for the treatment, prevention, or amelioration of viral, bacterial, and fungal respiratory infections, respectively. Unfortunately, in regard to certain infections, there are no therapies available, infections have been proven to be refractory to therapies, or the occurrence of side effects outweighs the benefits of the administration of a therapy to a subject. The use of anti-bacterial agents for the treatment of bacterial respiratory infections may also produce side effects or result in resistant bacterial strains. The administration of anti-fungal agents may cause renal failure or bone marrow dysfunction and may not be effective against fungal infection in patients with suppressed immune systems. Additionally, the infection causing microorganism (e.g., virus, bacterium, or fungus) may be resistant or develop resistance to the administered therapeutic agent or combination of therapeutic agents. In fact, microorganisms that develop resistance to administered therapeutic agents often develop pleiotropic drug or multidrug resistance, that is, resistance to therapeutic agents that act by mechanisms different from the mechanisms of the administered agents. Thus, as a result of drug resistance, many infections prove refractory to a wide array of standard treatment protocols. Therefore, new therapies for the treatment, prevention, and amelioration of respiratory infections and symptoms thereof are needed.
2.3.1 Viral Respiratory Infections
2.3.1.1 Parainfluenza Virus Infections
Parainfluenza viral (“PIV”) infection results in serious respiratory tract disease in infants and children. (Tao et al., 1999, Vaccine 17: 1100–08). Infectious parainfluenza viral infections account for approximately 20% of all hospitalizations of pediatric patients suffering from respiratory tract infections worldwide. Id.
PIV is a member of the paramyxovirus genus of the paramyxoviridae family. PIV is made up of two structural modules: (1) an internal ribonucleoprotein core or nucleocapsid, containing the viral genome, and (2) an outer, roughly spherical lipoprotein envelope. Its genome is a single strand of negative sense RNA, approximately 15,456 nucleotides in length, encoding at least eight polypeptides. These proteins include, but are not limited to, the nucleocapsid structural protein (NP, NC, or N depending on the genera), the phosphoprotein (P), the matrix protein (M), the fusion glycoprotein (F), the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase glycoprotein (HN), the large polymerase protein (L), and the C and D proteins of unknown function. Id.
The parainfluenza nucleocapsid protein (NP, NC, or N) consists of two domains within each protein unit including an amino-terminal domain, comprising about two-thirds of the molecule, which interacts directly with the RNA, and a carboxyl-terminal domain, which lies on the surface of the assembled nucleocapsid. A hinge is thought to exist at the junction of these two domains thereby imparting some flexibility to this protein (see Fields et al. (ed.), 1991, Fundamental Virology, 2nd ed., Raven Press, New York, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). The matrix protein (M), is apparently involved with viral assembly and interacts with both the viral membrane as well as the nucleocapsid proteins. The phosphoprotein (P), which is subject to phosphorylation, is thought to play a regulatory role in transcription and may also be involved in methylation, phosphorylation and polyadenylation. The fusion glycoprotein (F) interacts with the viral membrane and is first produced as an inactive precursor then cleaved post-translationally to produce two disulfide linked polypeptides. The active F protein is also involved in penetration of the parainfluenza virion into host cells by facilitating fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell plasma membrane. Id. The glycoprotein, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN), protrudes from the envelope allowing the virus to contain both hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activities. HN is strongly hydrophobic at its amino terminal which functions to anchor the HN protein into the lipid bilayer. Id. Finally, the large polymerase protein (L) plays an important role in both transcription and replication. Id.
Currently, therapies for PIV comprises treatment of specific symptoms. In most cases rest, fluids, and a comfortable environment are sufficient therapy for a PIV infection. In cases in which fever is high, acetaminophen is recommended over aspirin, especially in children to avoid the risk of Reye's syndrome with influenza. For croup associated with PIV infection, therapies such as humidified air, oxygen, aerosolized racemic epinephrine, and oral dexamethasone (a steroid) are recommended to decrease upper airway swelling and intravenous fluids are administered for dehydration. Therapy for bronchiolitis associated with PIV infection include supportive therapy (e.g., oxygen, humidified air, chest clapping, and postural drainage to remove secretions, rest, and clear fluids) and administration of albuterol or steroids. Antibiotic, anti-viral, and/or anitfungal agents may be administered to prevent secondary respiratory infections. See Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy (17th ed., 1999).
2.3.1.2 Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections
Respiratory syncytial virus (“RSV”) is the leading cause of serious lower respiratory tract disease in infants and children (Feigen et al., eds., 1987, Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, WB Saunders, Philadelphia at pages 1653–1675; New Vaccine Development, Establishing Priorities, Vol. 1, 1985, National Academy Press, Washington D.C. at pages 397–409; and Ruuskanen et al., 1993, Curr. Probl. Pediatr. 23:50–79). The yearly epidemic nature of RSV infection is evident worldwide, but the incidence and severity of RSV disease in a given season vary by region (Hall, C. B., 1993, Contemp. Pediatr. 10:92–110). In temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, it usually begins in late fall and ends in late spring. Primary RSV infection occurs most often in children from 6 weeks to 2 years of age and uncommonly in the first 4 weeks of life during nosocomial epidemics (Hall et al., 1979, New Engl. J. Med. 300:393–396). Children at increased risk from RSV infection include, but are not limited to, preterm infants (Hall et al., 1979, New Engl. J. Med. 300:393–396) and children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (Groothuis et al., 1988, Pediatrics 82:199–203), congenital heart disease (MacDonald et al., New Engl. J. Med. 307:397–400), congenital or acquired immunodeficiency (Ogra et al., 1988, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 7:246–249; and Pohl et al., 1992, J. Infect. Dis. 165:166–169), and cystic fibrosis (Abman et al., 1988, J. Pediatr. 113:826–830). The fatality rate in infants with heart or lung disease who are hospitalized with RSV infection is 3%–4% (Navas et al., 1992, J. Pediatr. 121:348–354).
RSV infects adults as well as infants and children. In healthy adults, RSV causes predominantly upper respiratory tract disease. It has recently become evident that some adults, especially the elderly, have symptomatic RSV infections more frequently than had been previously reported (Evans, A. S., eds., 1989, Viral Infections of Humans Epidemiology and Control, 3rd ed., Plenum Medical Book, New York at pages 525–544). Several epidemics also have been reported among nursing home patients and institutionalized young adults (Falsey, A. R., 1991, Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 12:602–608; and Garvie et al., 1980, Br. Med. J. 281:1253–1254). Finally, RSV may cause serious disease in immunosuppressed persons, particularly bone marrow transplant patients (Hertz et al., 1989, Medicine 68:269–281).
Therapies available for the treatment of established RSV disease are limited. Severe RSV disease of the lower respiratory tract often requires considerable supportive care, including administration of humidified oxygen and respiratory assistance (Fields et al., eds, 1990, Fields Virology, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Raven Press, New York at pages 1045–1072).
While a vaccine might prevent RSV infection, no vaccine is yet licensed for this indication. A major obstacle to vaccine development is safety. A formalin-inactivated vaccine, though immunogenic, unexpectedly caused a higher and more severe incidence of lower respiratory tract disease due to RSV in immunized infants than in infants immunized with a similarly prepared trivalent parainfluenza vaccine (Kim et al., 1969, Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:422–434; and Kapikian et al., 1969, Am. J. Epidemiol. 89:405–421). Several candidate RSV vaccines have been abandoned and others are under development (Murphy et al., 1994, Virus Res. 32:13–36), but even if safety issues are resolved, vaccine efficacy must also be improved. A number of problems remain to be solved. Immunization would be required in the immediate neonatal period since the peak incidence of lower respiratory tract disease occurs at 2–5 months of age. The immaturity of the neonatal immune response together with high titers of maternally acquired RSV antibody may be expected to reduce vaccine immunogenicity in the neonatal period (Murphy et al., 1988, J. Virol. 62:3907–3910; and Murphy et al., 1991, Vaccine 9:185–189). Finally, primary RSV infection and disease do not protect well against subsequent RSV disease (Henderson et al., 1979, New Engl. J. Med. 300:530–534).
Currently, the only approved approach to prophylaxis of RSV disease is passive immunization. Initial evidence suggesting a protective role for IgG was obtained from observations involving maternal antibody in ferrets (Prince, G. A., Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1975) and humans (Lambrecht et al., 1976, J. Infect. Dis. 134:211–217; and Glezen et al., 1981, J. Pediatr. 98:708–715). Hemming et al. (Morell et al., eds., 1986, Clinical Use of Intravenous Immunoglobulins, Academic Press, London at pages 285–294) recognized the possible utility of RSV antibody in treatment or prevention of RSV infection during studies involving the pharmacokinetics of an intravenous immune globulin (IVIG) in newborns suspected of having neonatal sepsis. They noted that one infant, whose respiratory secretions yielded RSV, recovered rapidly after IVIG infusion. Subsequent analysis of the IVIG lot revealed an unusually high titer of RSV neutralizing antibody. This same group of investigators then examined the ability of hyperimmune serum or immune globulin, enriched for RSV neutralizing antibody, to protect cotton rats and primates against RSV infection (Prince et al., 1985, Virus Res. 3:193–206; Prince et al., 1990, J. Virol. 64:3091–3092; Hemming et al., 1985, J. Infect. Dis. 152:1083–1087; Prince et al., 1983, Infect. Immun. 42:81–87; and Prince et al., 1985, J. Virol. 55:517–520). Results of these studies suggested that RSV neutralizing antibody given prophylactically inhibited respiratory tract replication of RSV in cotton rats. When given therapeutically, RSV antibody reduced pulmonary viral replication both in cotton rats and in a nonhuman primate model. Furthermore, passive infusion of immune serum or immune globulin did not produce enhanced pulmonary pathology in cotton rats subsequently challenged with RSV.
Recent clinical studies have demonstrated the ability of this passively administered RSV hyperimmune globulin (RSV IVIG) to protect at-risk children from severe lower respiratory infection by RSV (Groothius et al., 1993, New Engl. J. Med. 329:1524–1530; and The PREVENT Study Group, 1997, Pediatrics 99:93–99). While this is a major advance in preventing RSV infection, this therapy poses certain limitations in its widespread use. First, RSV IVIG must be infused intravenously over several hours to achieve an effective dose. Second, the concentrations of active material in hyperimmune globulins are insufficient to treat adults at risk or most children with comprised cardiopulmonary function. Third, intravenous infusion necessitates monthly hospital visits during the RSV season. Finally, it may prove difficult to select sufficient donors to produce a hyperimmune globulin for RSV to meet the demand for this product. Currently, only approximately 8% of normal donors have RSV neutralizing antibody titers high enough to qualify for the production of hyperimmune globulin.
One way to improve the specific activity of the immunoglobulin would be to develop one or more highly potent RSV neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). Such MAbs should be human or humanized in order to retain favorable pharmacokinetics and to avoid generating a human anti-mouse antibody response, as repeat dosing would be required throughout the RSV season. Two glycoproteins, F and G, on the surface of RSV have been shown to be targets of neutralizing antibodies (Fields et al., 1990, supra; and Murphy et al., 1994, supra). These two proteins are also primarily responsible for viral recognition and entry into target cells; G protein binds to a specific cellular receptor and the F protein promotes fusion of the virus with the cell. The F protein is also expressed on the surface of infected cells and is responsible for subsequent fusion with other cells leading to syncytia formation. Thus, antibodies to the F protein may directly neutralize virus or block entry of the virus into the cell or prevent syncytia formation. Although antigenic and structural differences between A and B subtypes have been described for both the G and F proteins, the more significant antigenic differences reside on the G glycoprotein, where amino acid sequences are only 53% homologous and antigenic relatedness is 5% (Walsh et al., 1987, J. Infect. Dis. 155:1198–1204; and Johnson et al., 1987, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:5625–5629). Conversely, antibodies raised to the F protein show a high degree of cross-reactivity among subtype A and B viruses. Comparison of biological and biochemical properties of 18 different murine MAbs directed to the RSV F protein resulted in the identification of three distinct antigenic sites that are designated A, B, and C. (Beeler and Coelingh, 1989, J. Virol. 7:2941–2950). Neutralization studies were performed against a panel of RSV strains isolated from 1956 to 1985 that demonstrated that epitopes within antigenic sites A and C are highly conserved, while the epitopes of antigenic site B are variable.
A humanized antibody directed to an epitope in the A antigenic site of the F protein of RSV, palivizumab (SYNAGIS®), is approved for intramuscular administration to pediatric patients for prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease caused by RSV at recommended monthly doses of 15 mg/kg of body weight throughout the RSV season (November through April in the northern hemisphere). Palivizumab (SYNAGIS®) is a composite of human (95%) and murine (5%) antibody sequences. See, Johnson et al., 1997, J. Infect. Diseases 176:1215–1224 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,824,307, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. The human heavy chain sequence was derived from the constant domains of human IgG1 and the variable framework regions of the VH genes of Cor (Press et al., 1970, Biochem. J. 117:641–660) and Cess (Takashi et al., 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81:194–198). The human light chain sequence was derived from the constant domain of Cκ and the variable framework regions of the VL gene K104 with Jκ-4 (Bentley et al., 1980, Nature 288:5194–5198). The murine sequences derived from a murine monoclonal antibody, Mab 1129 (Beeler et al., 1989, J. Virology 63:2941–2950), in a process which involved the grafting of the murine complementarity determining regions into the human antibody frameworks.
2.3.1.3 Avian & Human Metapneumovirus
Recently, a new member of the Paramyxoviridae family has been isolated from 28 children with clinical symptoms reminiscent of those caused by human respiratory syncytial virus (“hRSV”) infection, ranging from mild upper respiratory tract disease to severe bronchiolitis and pneumonia (Van Den Hoogen et al., 2001, Nature Medicine 7:719–724). The new virus was named human metapneumovirus (hMPV) based on sequence homology and gene constellation. The study further showed that by the age of five years virtually all children in the Netherlands have been exposed to hMPV and that the virus has been circulating in humans for at least half a century.
The genomic organization of human metapneumovirus is described in van den Hoogen et al., 2002, Virology 295:119–132. Human metapneumovirus has recently been isolated from patients in North America (Peret et al., 2002, J. Infect. Diseases 185:1660–1663).
Human metapneumovirus is related to avian metapneumovirus. For example, the F protein of hMPV is highly homologous to the F protein of avian pneumonovirus (“APV”). Alignment of the human metapneumoviral F protein with the F protein of an avian pneumovirus isolated from Mallard Duck shows 85.6% identity in the ectodomain. Alignment of the human metapneumoviral F protein with the F protein of an avian pneumovirus isolated from Turkey (subgroup B) shows 75% identity in the ectodomain. See, e.g., co-owned and co-pending Provisional Application No. 60/358,934, entitled “Recombinant Parainfluenza Virus Expression Systems and Vaccines Comprising Heterologous Antigens Derived from Metapneumovirus,” filed on Feb. 21, 2002, by Haller and Tang, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
Respiratory disease caused by an APV was first described in South Africa in the late 1970s (Buys et al., 1980, Turkey 28:36–46) where it had a devastating effect on the turkey industry. The disease in turkeys was characterized by sinusitis and rhinitis and was called turkey rhinotracheitis (TRT). The European isolates of APV have also been strongly implicated as factors in swollen head syndrome (SHS) in chickens (O'Brien, 1985, Vet. Rec. 117:619–620). Originally, the disease appeared in broiler chicken flocks infected with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and was assumed to be a secondary problem associated with Newcastle disease (ND). Antibody against European APV was detected in affected chickens after the onset of SHS (Cook et al., 1988, Avian Pathol. 17:403–410), thus implicating APV as the cause.
The avian pneumovirus is a single stranded, non-segmented RNA virus that belongs to the sub-family Pneumovirinae of the family Paramyxoviridae, genus metapneumovirus (Cavanagh and Barrett, 1988, Virus Res. 11:241–256; Ling et al., 1992, J. Gen. Virol. 73:1709–1715; Yu et al., 1992, J. Gen. Virol. 73:1355–1363). The Paramyxoviridae family is divided into two sub-families: the Paramyxovirinae and Pneumovirinae. The subfamily Paramyxovirinae includes, but is not limited to, the genera: Paramyxovirus, Rubulavirus, and Morbillivirus. Recently, the sub-family Pneumovirinae was divided into two genera based on gene order, i.e., pneumovirus and metapneumovirus (Naylor et al., 1998, J. Gen. Virol., 79:1393–1398; Pringle, 1998, Arch. Virol. 143:1449–1159). The pneumovirus genus includes, but is not limited to, human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), bovine respiratory syncytial virus (bRSV), ovine respiratory syncytial virus, and mouse pneumovirus. The metapneumovirus genus includes, but is not limited to, European avian pneumovirus (subgroups A and B), which is distinguished from hRSV, the type species for the genus pneumovirus (Naylor et al., 1998, J. Gen. Virol., 79:1393–1398; Pringle, 1998, Arch. Virol. 143:1449–1159). The US isolate of APV represents a third subgroup (subgroup C) within metapneumovirus genus because it has been found to be antigenically and genetically different from European isolates (Seal, 1998, Virus Res. 58:45–52; Senne et al., 1998, In: Proc. 47th WPDC, California, pp. 67–68).
Electron microscopic examination of negatively stained APV reveals pleomorphic, sometimes spherical, virions ranging from 80 to 200 nm in diameter with long filaments ranging from 1000 to 2000 nm in length (Collins and Gough, 1988, J. Gen. Virol. 69:909–916). The envelope is made of a membrane studded with spikes 13 to 15 nm in length. The nucleocapsid is helical, 14 nm in diameter and has 7 nm pitch. The nucleocapsid diameter is smaller than that of the genera Paramyxovirus and Morbillivirus, which usually have diameters of about 18 nm.
Avian pneumovirus infection is an emerging disease in the USA despite its presence elsewhere in the world in poultry for many years. In May 1996, a highly contagious respiratory disease of turkeys appeared in Colorado, and an APV was subsequently isolated at the National Veterinary Services Laboratory (NVSL) in Ames, Iowa (Senne et al., 1997, Proc. 134th Ann. Mtg., AVMA, pp. 190). Prior to this time, the United States and Canada were considered free of avian pneumovirus (Pearson et al., 1993, In: Newly Emerging and Re-emerging Avian Diseases: Applied Research and Practical Applications for Diagnosis and Control, pp. 78–83; Hecker and Myers, 1993, Vet. Rec. 132:172). Early in 1997, the presence of APV was detected serologically in turkeys in Minnesota. By the time the first confirmed diagnosis was made, APV infections had already spread to many farms. The disease is associated with clinical signs in the upper respiratory tract: foamy eyes, nasal discharge and swelling of the sinuses. It is exacerbated by secondary infections. Morbidity in infected birds can be as high as 100%. The mortality can range from 1 to 90% and is highest in six to twelve week old poults.
Avian pneumovirus is transmitted by contact. Nasal discharge, movement of affected birds, contaminated water, contaminated equipment; contaminated feed trucks and load-out activities can contribute to the transmission of the virus. Recovered turkeys are thought to be carriers. Because the virus is shown to infect the epithelium of the oviduct of laying turkeys and because APV has been detected in young poults, egg transmission is considered a possibility.
Based upon the recent work with hMPV, hMPV likewise appears to be a significant factor in human, particularly, juvenile respiratory disease.
Thus, theses three viruses, RSV, hMPV, and PIV, cause a significant portion of human respiratory disease. Accordingly, a broad spectrum therapy is needed to reduce the incidence of viral respiratory disease caused by these viruses.
2.3.2 Bacterial Respiratory Infections
2.3.2.1 Bacterial Pneumonia
There are about 2 million cases of pneumonia each year of which 40,000 to 70,000 result in death. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy (17th ed. 1999). Although certain viruses and fungi cause pneumonia, most cases of pneumonia in adults are caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus pneumonia, Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Chlmayda pneumoniae, C. psittaci, C. trachomatis, Moraxella (Branhamella) catarrhalis, Legionella pneumophila, Klebsiella penumoniae, and other gram-negative bacilli. Id.
Pneumonia is usually spread by inhaling droplets small enough to reach the alveoli and aspirating secretions from the upper airways. Id. Alcoholics, institutionalized persons, cigarette smokers, patients with heart failure, patients with chronic obstructive airway disease, the elderly, children, infants, infants born prematurely, patients with compromised immune systems, and patients with dysphagia are at greater risk of developing pneumonia. Id.
Pneumonia is diagnosed based on characteristic symptoms and an infiltrate on chest x-ray. Id. Common symptoms of pneumonia include cough, fever, sputum production, tachypnea, and crackles with bronchial breath sounds. Id. Determination of the specific pathogen causing the pneumonia cannot be made in about 30–50% of patients and specimens may be misleading because of normal flora may contaminate samples through the upper airways. Id. Special culture techniques, special stains, serologic assays, or lung biopsies may be used for diagnosis. Id.
Therapies for the treatment of pneumonia consists of respiratory support, such as oxygen, and antibiotics based on determination of the specific bacteria and/or according to the patient's age, epidemiology, host risk factors, and severity of illness. Id. For example, in cases of Staphylococcal pneumonia, anti-bacterial therapy comprises administration of penicillin (e.g., oxacillin and nafcillin) or cephalosporin (e.g. cephalothin or cefamandol, cefazolin, and cefuroxime). Id. In cases of streptococcal pneumonia, anti-bacterial therapy comprises administration of penicillin, cephalosporins, erythromycin, or clindamycin. Id.
The administration of antibiotics may result in side effects, toxicity, and development of antibiotic resistant strains. In addition, because the pathogen causing pneumonia is difficult to diagnose, the use of antibiotics may be ineffective since both viruses and fungi also cause pneumonia. Thus, new therapies for pneumonia are desired.
2.3.2.2 Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infects 1.9 billion and the active disease, tuberculosis (“TB”) results in 1.9 million deaths around the world each year. (Dye et al., 1999, JAMA 282:677–686). After a century of steadily declining rates of TB cases in the United States, the downward trend was reversed in the late 1980s as a result of the emergence of a multidrug-resistant strain of M. tuberculosis, the HIV epidemic, and the influx of immigrants. (Navin et al., 2002, Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8:11).
M. tuberculosis is an obligate aerobe, nonmotile rod-shaped bacterium. In classic cases of tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis complexes are in the well-aerated upper lobes of the lungs. M. tuberculosis are classified as acid-fast bacteria due to the impermeability of the cell wall by certain dyes and stains. The cell wall of M. tuberculosis, composed of peptidoglycan and complex lipids, is responsible for the bacterium's resistance to many antibiotics, acidic and alkaline compounds, osmotic lysis, and lethal oxidations, and survival inside macrophages.
TB progresses in five stages. In the first stage, the subject inhales the droplet nuclei containing less than three bacilli. Although alveolar macrophages take up the M. tuberculosis, the macrophages are not activated and do not destroy the bacterium. Seven to 21 days after the initial infection, the M. tuberculosis multiples within the macrophages until the macrophages burst, which attracts additional macrophages to the site of infection that phagocytose the M. tuberculosis, but are not activated and thus do not destroy the M. tuberculosis. In stage 3, lymphocytes, particularly T-cells, are activated and cytokines, including IFN activate macrophages capable of destroying M. tuberculosis are produced. At this stage, the patient is tuberculin-positive and a cell mediated immune response, including activated macrophages releasing lytic enzymes and T cell secreting cytokines, is initiated. Although, some marcrophages are activated against the M. tuberculosis, the bacteria continue to multiply within inactivated macrophages and begin to grow tubercles which are characterized by semi-solid centers. In stage 4, tubercles may invade the bronchus, other parts of the lung, and the blood supply line and the patient may exhibit secondary lesions in other parts of the body, including the genitourinary system, bones, joints, lymph nodes, and peritoneum. In the final stage, the tubercles liquify inducing increased growth of M. tuberculosis. The large bacterium load causes the walls of nearby bronchi to rupture and form cavities that enables the infection to spread quickly to other parts of the lung.
Current therapies available for TB comprise an initial two month regime of multiple antibiotics, such as rifampcin, isoniazid, pyranzinamide, ethambutol, or streptomycin. In the next four months, only rifampicin and isoniazid are administered to destroy persisting M. tuberculosis. Although proper prescription and patient compliance results in a cure in most cases, the number of deaths from TB has been on the rise as a result of the emergence of new M. tuberculosis strains resistant to current antibiotic therapies. (Rattan et al., 1998, Emerging Infectious Diseases, 4(2):195–206). In addition, fatal and severe liver injury has been associated with treatment of latent TB with rifampcin and pyranzinamide. (CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(44):998–999).
2.3.3 Fungal Respiratory Infections
The number of systemic invasive fungal infections rose sharply in the past decade due to the increase in the at-risk patient population as a result of organ transplants, oncology, human immunodeficiency virus, use of vascular catheters, and misuse of broad spectrum antibiotics. Dodds et al., 2000 Pharmacotherapy 20(11): 1335–1355. Seventy percent of fungal-related deaths are caused by Candida species, Aspergillus species, and Cryptococcus neoformans. Yasuda, California Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, May/June 2001, pp. 4–11.
2.3.3.1 Systemic Candidiasis
80% of all major systemic fungal infections are due to Candida species. The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 17th ed., 1999. Invasive candidiasis is most often caused by Candida albicans, Candida troicalis, and Candida glabrata in immunosuppressd patients. Id. Candidiasis is a defining opportunistic infection of AIDS, infecting the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Id. In HIV-infected patients, candidiasis is usually mucocutaneous and infects the oropharynx, the esophagus, and the vagina. Ampel, April-June 1996, Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2(2): 109–116.
Candida species are commensals that colonize the normal gastrointestinal tract and skin. The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Berkow et al. (eds.), 17th ed., 1999. Thus, cultures of Candidia from sputum, the mouth, urine, stool, vagina, or skin does not necessarily indicate an invasive, progressive infection. Id. In most cases, diagnosis of candidiasis requires presentation of a characteristic clinical lesion, documentation of histopathologic evidence of tissue invasion, or the exclusion of other causes. Id. Symptoms of systemic candidiasis infection of the respiratory tract are typically nonspecific, including dysphagia, coughing, and fever. Id.
All forms of candidiasis are considered serious, progressive, and potentially fatal. Id. Therapies for the treatment of candidiasis typically include the administration of the combination of the anti-fungal agents amphotericin B and flucytosine. Id. Unfortunately, acute renal failure has been associated with amphotericin B therapy. Dodds, supra. Fluconazole is not as effective as amphotericin B in treating certain species of Candida, but is useful as initial therapy in high oral or intravenous doses while species identification is pending. The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 17th ed., 1999. Fluconazole, however, has led to increasing treatment failures and anti-fungal resistance. Ampel, supra. Thus, there is a need for novel therapies for the treatment of systemic candidiasis.
2.3.3.2 Aspergillosis
Aspergillus includes 132 species and 18 variants among which Aspergillus fumigatus is involved in 80% of Aspergillus-related diseases. Kurp et al., 1999, Medscape General Medicine 1(3). Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common cause of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis that extends rapidly, causing progressive, and ultimately fatal respiratory failure. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 17th ed., 1999. Patients undergoing long-term high-dose corticosteroid therapy, organ transplant patients, patients with hereditary disorders of neutrophil function, and patients infected with AIDS are at risk for aspergillosis.
Clinical manifestations of invasive pulmonary infection by Aspergillus include fever, cough, and chest pain. Aspergillus colonize preexisting cavity pulmonary lesions in the form of aspergilloma (fungus ball) which is composed of tangled masses hyphae, fibrin exudate, and inflammatory cells encapsulated by fibrous tissue. Id. Aspergillomas usually form and enlarge in pulmonary cavities originally caused by bronchiectasis, neoplasm, TB, and other chronic pulmonary infections. Id. Most aspergillomas do not respond to or require systemic anti-fungal therapy. Id. However, invasive infections often progress rapidly and are fatal, thus aggressive therapy comprising IV amphotericin B or oral itraconazole is required. Id. Unfortunately, high-dose amphotericin B may cause renal failure and itraconazole is effective only in moderately severe cases. Id. Therefore, there is a need for new therapies for the treatment of aspergillosis.
2.3.3.3 Cryptococcosis
Cases of cryptococcosis were rare before the HIV epidemic. Ampel, supra. AIDS patients, patients with Hodgkin's or other lymphomas or sarcoidosis, and patients undergoing long-term corticosteroid therapy are at increased risk for cryptococcosis. The Merk Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 17th ed., 1999. In most cases, cryptococcal infections are self-limited, but AIDS-associated cryptococcal infection may be in the form of a severe, progressive pneumonia with acute dyspnea and primary lesions in the lungs. Id. In cases of progressive disseminated cryptococcosis affecting non-immunocompromised patients, chronic meningitis is most common without clinically evident pulmonary lesions. Id.
Immunocompetent patients do not always require the administration of a therapy to treat localized pulmonary cryptococcosis. However, when such patients are administered a therapy for the treatment of localized pulmonary cryptococcosis, it typically consists of the administration of amphotericin B with or without flucytosine. Id. AIDS patients are generally administered an initial therapy consisting of amphotericin B and flucytosine and then oral fluconazole thereafter to treat cryptococcosis. Id. Renal and hematologic function of all patients receiving ampotericin B with or without flucytosine must be evaluated before and during therapy since flucytosine blood levels must be monitored to limit toxicity and administration of flucytosine may not be safe for patients with preexisting renal failure or bone marrow dysfunction. Id. Thus, new therapies for the treatment of cryptococcosis are needed.
2.4 Interleukin-9
Interleukin-9 (“IL-9”) plays a critical role in a number of antigen-induced responses in mice, such as bronchial hyperresponsiveness, epithelial mucin production, eosinophilia, elevated T cells, B cells, mast cells, macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, and other inflammatory cell counts in the bronchial lavage, histologic changes in the lung associated with inflammation, and elevated serum total IgE. See Levitt et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,261,559, herein incorporated by reference. The structural similarity observed for human and murine IL-9 genes suggests that human IL-9 has a significant role in facilitating asthmatic immune responses. IL-9 is expressed by activated T cells and mast cells and functions as a T cell growth factor, mediates the growth of erythroid progenitors, B cells, mast cells, eosinophils, and fetal thymocytes, acts synergistically with interleukin-3 (“IL-3”) to induce mast cell activation and proliferation, and promotes the production of mucin by lung epithelium. The administration of murine antibodies to human subject is associated with many drawbacks. Thus, antibodies having a low immunogenicity and a high affinity for human IL-9 would be useful to treat human patients suffering from diseases associated with IL-9 expression and/or activity such as asthma.
Citation or discussion of a reference herein shall not be construed as an admission that such is prior art to the present invention.